Lunacy – Medieval Disability Glossary

Definition

Adjective

Old English monsek, moone-sicke, mónaþ-seóc
Middle Dutch maynsieck
Dutch maanziek
Middle High German mān-siech
Danish månesyg
Danish (1550) maanesiug
German mondsüchtig
German (15th cent.) mānsühtic, monsuchtig
Middle Dutch maynsuyctich
Dutch maanzuchtig
Greek seleniazomai

Noun

Old English mónaþseóc-ness

Verb

Old English mónaþ-seóc

— From Oxford English Dictionary

moonsick, adj.
(monsekæ, monsek, moone-sicke)

Pronunciation: /mun/ /sɪk/

Forms: OE monsek (Mercian), 15–16 moone-sicke

Origin: Formed within English, by compounding; modelled on a Latin lexical item. Etymons: moon n.1, sick adj.

Etymology: < moon n.1 + sick adj., after Latin lunaticus (see lunatic adj.). Compare Middle Dutch maynsieck (Dutch maanziek), Middle High German mān-siech, Danish månesyg (1550 as maanesiug). Compare also German mondsüchtig (15th cent. as mānsühtic, monsuchtig), Middle Dutch maynsuyctich (Dutch maanzuchtig) moonsick, somnambulant.

1. Insane, lunatic, deranged.

— From Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary

Forms: OE món-seóc, mónaþ-seóc, mónaþseóc-ness
món-seóc, adj.
mónaþ-seóc, adj.

I. lunatic, epileptic Mónaþseóc lunaticus,

II. suffering from mónaþádl

mónaþ-seóc, v.

mónaþseóc-ness, e; f.

Story

Definitions

In Old English, moonsick occurs most frequently as an adjective meaning “insane,” “lunatic,” “deranged,” or “epileptic.” The English form of the term first appeared in the tenth century. It occurred most often as an adjective and rarely as a noun (“moonsickness”) or verb.

Etymology

The term is a compound of moon (n.) and sick (adj.). The Oxford English Dictionary also lists Middle Dutch maynsieck, Dutch maanziek, Middle High German mān-siech, Danish månesyg, Danish (1550) maanesiug, German mondsüchtig, German (15th cent.) mānsühtic and monsuchtig, Middle Dutch maynsuyctich, and Dutch maanzuchtig. These Dutch and Scandinavian cognates may suggest that the term was integrated into the English/Anglo-Saxon lexicon by the Vikings, who first invaded Britain in CE 793. This therefore suggests that the English ‘moonsick’ didn’t appear until at least the eighth century, although it borrowed from terms that have an even longer history. The OED, for example, lists Latin lunaticus (luna + ticus, ‘pertaining to the moon,’ singular nominative masculine declension) as an antecedent of moonsick. Old English moonsick also appears in the Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary as món-seóc (adj. and v.), mónaþ-seóc (adj.), and mónaþseóc-ness (n.). Other possible forms include Mercian monsek, Old English monsekae, and OE moone-sicke. The Mercian form provides further proof that the term was introduced into Britain by the first wave of Vikings since the eastern part of Mercia was invaded by the Danish in 877.

Thus, the OE form is most directly borrowed from the Viking dialects of Danish/Dutch and Scandinavian. However, the term also appears in Greek as ‘seleniazomai’. ‘Selenian’ means ‘of or pertaining to the moon considered as a world.’ This idea of the moon as a world is connected to the concept of the gravity of other worlds/planets influencing human minds. In this view, the mind is very easily influenced because it consists of atoms smashing together to form coherent thought, so a thing as simple as the gravity of another world/planet changing in relative distance to the spatial position of our brain can influence how much the force of gravity is directing the atoms in our brain. In the Greek seleniazomai, it is the gravity of the lunar “world” that causes moon sickness. This concept carries into the OE meaning of the word as describing a spiritual, psychological, or physical sickness, as the next section will further explain.

Semantic Change

The term ‘brohtun’ appears concurrently with moonsick, and it is connected to palsy, paralysis, or being crippled. Bræc-seoc, meaning ‘troubled with the falling sickness, epileptic, frantic, lunatic,’ is also a related term. Fylle-seoc and wel-seoc appear in the Wessex versions of Matthew 17:15 (990-1100 and 1175, respectively). Fylle-seoc means ‘falling-sickness’ and is connected to ‘epileptic’ and ‘lunatic’ according to the Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. The 1175 version of Matthew 17:15 contains both Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian dialects, and wel-seoc only appears in the 1175 version of this verse. Other related terms are wan-seóc, (‘having the falling sickness, frenzied, lunatic’), wédend-seóc (‘possessed by a devil, mad’), wit-seóc (‘lunatic, possessed’), and wód-seóc (‘insane, mad’). These terms likely occurred in different locations, and each appear to have morphed into the term ‘moonsick.’ The Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary also defines the term moonsick as ‘suffering from mónaþádl’ (suffering from menstruation) but this meaning appeared rarely, likely because the term was more often used to describe gender-neutral conditions. For example, the term’s connection to menstruation is contradicted by the two passages from Matthew, which use the term to describe ailments affecting male figures. (However, there is no implication that these ailments only affect males.) Thus, toward the end of the OE period, ‘moonsick’ is gender neutral and most directly related to epilepsy, palsy, madness, possession, or insanity.

Evidence and Images

— From Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus

monsek, monsekae, adj.

The Rushworth Gospels (Mt): Skeat, 1871-87 25-245; Skeat, W.W.The Four Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions (Cambridge) [repr. Darmstadt 1970] –Gloss

1. [0082 (4.24)] et abit opinnio eius in totam siriam et obtulerunt ei omnes male habentes uaris langoribus et tormentis conpraehensos et qui demonia habebant et lunaticos et paraliticos et curauit eos & eode his hlisa in alle syria & him brohtun alle yfel hæbende & missenlicum adlum & tintregum gefongnae & þa þe dioful hæfdun & monsekae & loman & he gehælde þa.

2. [0562 (17.15)] domine miserere filio meo quia lunaticus est et male torquetur nam sepe cadit in ignem et crebro in aquam miltse sunu min forþon monsek he is & yfle þrowað forþon þe oft falleþ in fyre & gelome in wættre.

mónaþ-seóc

LS 13 (Machutus) B3.3.13 The Old English Life of Machutus (Prose)
1. [0312 (26v.1)] <Þam> monaþseocum he hælo forgæf, & ealle þa oþre god þe he worhte to Godes gife he tealde næs to his.

Lch II (3 Head) B21.2.1.3.1 Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England (Prose) [0040 (40)] Wiþ þam þe man sie monaþseoc.

Lch II (3) B21.2.1.3.2 Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England (Prose)
1. [0132 (40.1.1)] Wiþ þon þe mon sie monaþseoc nim mereswines fel, wyrc to swipan, swing mid þone man, sona bið sel, amen.

AntGl 5 (Kindschi) D1.5 Latin-Old English Glossaries (Gloss)
1. [0081 (81)] Lunaticus monaþseoc.

HlGl (Oliphant) D16.1The Harley Latin-Old English Glossary (Gloss)
1. [1086 (C1211)] Comitiales .i. garrito res dies mensi ylfie monaþseoce dagas.

monaðseoc

ÆCHom II, 6 B1.2.7 Ælfric’s Catholic Homilies: The Second Series, Text (Prose)
1. [0046 (56.117)] Agustinus magnus sic docet; Geleaffulle læwede menn þe on rihtum sinscipe lybbað agifað þritigfealdne wæstm. godra weorca. gif hi heora æwe æfter boclicum gesetnyssum healdað. þæt is þæt hi for bearnes gestreone on alyfedum timan hæmed began. and bearneacnigende wif. and monaðseoc forbugan. and ðonne heo leng tyman ne mæg. geswican hi hæmedes;

ÆLS (Memory of Saints) B1.3.17 Ælfric’s Lives of Saints (Prose)
1. [0035 (137)] His hlisa asprang þa to Syrian lande, and man ferode untrume <menn> feorran and nean, myslice geuntrumode, and monaðseoce and wode, and eac swilce beddrydan, and brohton to ðam Hælende, and he hi ealle gehælde forðan þe he Hælend is.

ÆHom 18 B1.4.18 Homilies of Ælfric: A Supplementary Collection (Prose)
1. [0003 (11)] His hlisa þa asprang to Sirian lande, ofer eall þæt rice, þæt is swiþe rum land; & him man gebrohte þa to fela bedridan menn, & þa monaðseocan, & þa sylfan wodan, & on manegum adlum mislice geswencte; & se soþa Hælend gehælde hi ealle, & him þa <fyligde><micel> folc gehwanon.

mónaþ-seóc

LS 13 (Machutus) B3.3.13 The Old English Life of Machutus (Prose)
1. [0312 (26v.1)] <Þam> monaþseocum he hælo forgæf, & ealle þa oþre god þe he worhte to Godes gife he tealde næs to his.

Lch II (3 Head) B21.2.1.3.1 Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of Early England (Prose)
[0040 (40)] Wiþ þam þe man sie monaþseoc.

AntGl 5 (Kindschi) D1.5 Latin-Old English Glossaries (Gloss)
1. [0081 (81)] Lunaticus monaþseoc.

HlGl (Oliphant) D16.1The Harley Latin-Old English Glossary (Gloss)
1. [1086 (C1211)] Comitiales .i. garrito res dies mensi ylfie monaþseoce dagas.

monaðseoc

ÆGl B1.9.2 Ælfrics Grammatik und Glossar (Prose)
1. [0406 (305.2)] lunaticus <fellseoc><vel> monaðseoc.

— From Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary:

mónaþ-seóc, adj. and v.
I. Wiþ þon þe mon sié mónaþseóc; nim mere-swínes fel, wyrc tó swipan, swing mid þone man; sóna bið sél, … (Anecdota Oxoniensia vol. 2, 404 ?)
II. Bearneácnigende wíf and mónaþseóc,Homl. Th. ii. 94, 4.[O. H. Ger. mánod-siuh lunaticus: and cf. mánod-suhtig menstruata.]

mónaþseóc-ness, e; f.
Wið mónoþseócnysse, gyf man ðás wyrte ðam mónoþseócan ligcgendon ofer álegþ, sóna hé hyne sylfne hálne up áhefþ, Herb. 66, 2; Lchdm. i. 170, 4

Middle English ‘lunatic’

— From Oxford English Dictionary

lunatyke, lunatik, lunatikes, lunatik, lunatyk, lunaticke, lunatyke

c1290 Early South-English Legendary/Lives of Saints I. 369/99: He hadde ane douȝter þat was lunatyke (https://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/cme/AHA2708.0001.001/1:3.46?rgn=div2;view=fulltext)

1377 Langland Piers Plowman B. Prol. 123: Thanne loked vp a lunatik, a lene thing with-alle.

c1380 Eng. Wycliffite Serm. in Sel. Wks. II. 23 Lunatikes ben sich men þat han cours of þer siikenesse bi movyng of þe moone.

1393 Langland Piers Plowman C. x. 107 Þe whiche aren lunatik lollers and leperes a-boute, And mad as þe mone sitt.

1398 J. Trevisa tr. Bartholomew de Glanville De Proprietatibus Rerum (1495) xvi. xcv. 587 The precyous stone Topazius..helpith ayenst the passyon Lunatyk.

c1430 Lydgate Reson & Sensuallyte 6177 Ther [sc. women’s] hertys chaunge never..Ther sect ys no thing lunatyke

1430–40 Lydgate tr. Bochas Fall of Princes (1554) vii. ii. 165 b He was..euery moneth once Lunaticke.

— From Oxford English Dictionary

moonsick, adj.
(monsekæ, monsek, moone-sicke)

OE (Mercian) Rushw. Gospels: Matt. iv. 24 Qui demonia habebant et lunaticos et paraliticos : þa þe dioful hæfdun & monsekæ & loman.

OE (Mercian) Rushw. Gospels: Matt. xvii. 15 Miserere filio meo quia lunaticus est : miltse sunu min forþon monsek he is.

1562 J. Heywood Sixt Hundred Epigrammes xxvii. in Wks. sig. Cciij Wyfe, I weene thou art dronke or Leunitike. Nay husband: women are neuer moone sicke.

1616 T. Adams Dis. Soule 66 If his Itch proceede from a Moone-sicke head, the chiefe intention is to settle his braines.

— From Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus

lunatic

ÆGl B1.9.2
1. [0406 (305.2)] lunaticus <fellseoc><vel> monaðseoc.

MtGl (Li) C8.1.1
1. [0091 (4.24)] et abiit opinio eius in totam syriam et obtulerunt ei omnes male habentes uariis languoribus et tormentis comprehensos et qui daemonia habebant et lunaticos et paralyticos et curauit eos & geeade gesprang mersung his in alle syria & gebrohtun him alle ða yfle hæfdon mið monigfald unhælo & mið fiondgeldum mið costungum begetna fornumena & ða diobles hæfdon & bræcsec & eorðcryplas & geboeta hea.

2. [0573 (17.15)] domine miserere filii mei quia lunaticus est et male patitur nam saepe cadit in ignem et crebro in aquam drihten milsa sunu mines forðon bræccec is & yfle ðolas forðon oft fallas in fyr & symle in wætre.

MtGl (Ru) C8.2.1
1. [0082 (4.24)] et abit opinnio eius in totam siriam et obtulerunt ei omnes male habentes uaris langoribus et tormentis conpraehensos et qui demonia habebant et lunaticos et paraliticos et curauit eos & eode his hlisa in alle syria & him brohtun alle yfel hæbende & missenlicum adlum & tintregum gefongnae & þa þe dioful hæfdun & monsekae & loman & he gehælde þa.

MtHeadGl (Li) C21.3
1. [0062 (61)] Puerum lunaticum curat et discipulis de sua inpossibilitate quaerentibus ait genus illud oratione ieiunioque pellendum ðone cnæht bræcceic hæled & ðeignum of his unmaeht soecendum cweð cynn ðæt mið gebed & mið fæstern to fordrifenne.

AldV 1 (Goossens) C31.1
1. [4813 (4820)] commitiales .i. garritores ylfie lunaticos wanseoce.

AntGl 5 (Kindschi) D1.5
1. [0081 (81)] Lunaticus monaþseoc.

ClGl 1 (Stryker) D8.1
1. [3651 (3675)] Lunaticos bræcseoce.

ClGl 3 (Quinn) D8.3
1. [0116 (116)] Lunaticos bræcseoce.

HlGl (Oliphant) D16.1
1. [225110 (D631)] Disintericus lunaticus.

— From Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary

lunatic

món-seóc (adj.)
“Lunatic”- also a verb

I. lunatic, epileptic
II. suffering from mónaþádl

Bible Passage

Vulgate

Old English

Middle English (Wycliffite Bible)

1611 KJV

Matthew 4:24

et abiit opinio eius in totam Syriam et obtulerunt ei omnes male habentes variis languoribus et tormentis conprehensos et qui daemonia habebant et lunaticos et paralyticos et curavit eos

Wessex Gospels:
& þa ferde his hlise into alle syriam. & hyo brohton to hym ealle yfel-hæbbende mistlichen adlen. & on tintregon gegripene. & þa þe deofel- seocnysse hæfdon. & moneðseoke. & lamen. & he þa gehælde.

Rushworth Gospels:
et abit opinnio eius in totam siriam et obtulerunt ei omnes male habentes uaris langoribus et tormentis conpraehensos et qui demonia habebant et lunaticos et paraliticos et curauit eos & eode his hlisa in alle syria & him brohtun alle yfel hæbende & missenlicum adlum & tintregum gefongnae & þa þe dioful hæfdun & monsekae & loman & he gehælde þa.

And his fame went into all Syria; and they brought to him all that were at mal-ease, and that were taken with diverse languors and torments, and them that had fiends, and lunatic men, and men in palsy, and he healed them.

And his fame went throughout all Syria: and they brought unto him all sick people that were taken with divers diseases and torments, and those which were possessed with devils, and those which were lunatick, and those that had the palsy; and he healed them.

Matthew 17:15

[v. 14]et cum venisset ad turbam accessit ad eum homo genibus provolutus ante eum dicens Domine miserere filii mei quia lunaticus est et male patitur nam saepe cadit in ignem et crebro in aquam

Wessex Gospels:
Drihten gemiltse minne sune. for-þan þe he ys wel-seoc. & yfel þoleð. oft he falð on fyr. & gelomlice on wætere.

Rushworth Gospels:
domine miserere filio meo quia lunaticus est et male torquetur nam sepe cadit in ignem et crebro in aquam miltse sunu min forþon monsek he is & yfle þrowað forþon þe oft falleþ in fyre & gelome in wættre.

Lord, have mercy on my son; for he is lunatic, and suffereth evil, for oft times he falleth into the fire, and oft times into the water.

Lord, have mercy on my son: for he is lunatick, and sore vexed: for ofttimes he falleth into the fire, and oft into the water.

Beyerstein suggests that the curious behavior of possessed people described in the classic Malleus Maleficarum (fifteenth century A.D.) is likely due to symptoms of epilepsy or Tourette’s syndrome.

“Healing of the Paralysed Man” (Luke 5:17-23)
British Library

“Winged Figure, Symbol of Matthew” (Gospel of Matthew, France)
British Library

“Christ Healing a Blind Man”
British Library

Further Reading

Ball, M. B. “The Lunatic in His Relation to Society.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 39, no. 3, Jan. 1883, pp. 318–33. doi:10.1176/ajp.39.3.318.

Bouchard, R. Philip. “Word Connections: Sun, Moon, & Stars.” The Philipendium, 21 Mar. 2017, https://medium.com/the-philipendium/word-connections-sun-moon-stars-946d9d0e5a13.

Bremmer, Rolf H., Jr., and László Sándor Chardonnens. “Old English Prognostics: Between the Moon and the Monstrous.” Monsters and the Monstrous in Medieval Northwest Europe. Edited by K. E. Olsen and L. A. J. R. Houwen, Peeters, 2001, pp. 153-66.

Brigo, Francesco, et al. “Epilepsy in Hildegard of Bingen’s Writings: A Comprehensive Overview.” Epilepsy & Behavior, vol. 80, 2018, pp. 135-143. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/yxgcj9yo.

Chapman, Simon, and Stephen Morrell. “Barking Mad? Another Lunatic Hypothesis Bites the Dust.” BMJ, vol. 321, no. 7276, Dec. 2000, pp. 1561–63. BMJ, doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7276.1561.

Craig, David. “Matthew 4:23-25.” Christianity and Literature, vol. 50, no. 3, 2001, pp. 450-450. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y2qpenwn.

Diamantis, Aristidis, et al. “Epilepsy during the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.” Journal of Neurology, vol. 257, no. 5, May 2010, pp. 691–98. doi:10.1007/s00415-009-5433-7.

Eghigian, Greg. From Madness to Mental Health: Psychiatric Disorder and Its Treatment in Western Civilization. Rutgers University Press, 2009.

Frost, Elisabeth A. “‘Ruses of the Lunatic Muse’: Harryette Mullen and Lyric Hybridity.” Women’s Studies, vol. 27, no. 5, Aug. 1998, pp. 465–81. doi:10.1080/00497878.1998.9979228.

Gilman, Sander L. “Madness as Disability.” History of Psychiatry, vol. 25, no. 4, 2014, pp. 441. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y4n8aozq.

Goldie, Matthew Boyd. “Psychosomatic Illness and Identity in London, 1416–1421: Hoccleve’s Complaint and Dialogue with a Friend.” Exemplaria, vol. 11, no. 1, Jan. 1999, pp. 23–52. doi:10.1179/exm.1999.11.1.23.

Hickey, Helen M. “The Lexical Prison: Impairment and Confinement in Medieval and Early Modern England.” Parergon, vol. 34, no. 2, 2017, pp. 133-157.

Huot, Sylvia. Madness in Medieval French Literature: Identities Found and Lost. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Janz, Dieter. “Epilepsy, Viewed Metaphysically: An Interpretation of the Biblical Story of the Epileptic Boy and of Raphael’s Transfiguration.” Epilepsia, vol. 27, no. 4, 1986, pp. 316–22. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1528-1157.1986.tb03548.x.

Jones, Timothy S. and David A. Sprunger, eds. “Depictions of Lunacy.” Marvels, Monsters, and Miracles: Studies in the Medieval and Early Modern Imaginations. Medieval Institute Publications, 2002.

Langland, William. “Piers Plowman.” Oxford English Dictionary, 1989, www.oed.com/view/Entry/111179?redirectedFrom=lunatic#eid.

Loftis, Sonya Freeman. “Lycanthropy and Lunacy: Cognitive Disability in The Duchess of Malfi.” Monstrosity, Disability, and the Posthuman in the Medieval and Early Modern World, edited by Richard H. Godden and Asa Simon Mittman, Springer International Publishing, 2019, pp. 209–25, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-25458-2_10.

Lunatic. The Oxford Dictionary of Word Origins, 2009. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y3zaj7h7.

Lydgate, John. “Fall of Princes.” Oxford English Dictionary, 1989, www.oed.com/view/Entry/111179?redirectedFrom=lunatic#eid.

Maizels, Michael. “Medieval Madness: Opicinus De Canistris and Geschwind Syndrome.” Southeastern College Art Conference Review, vol. 16, no. 2, 2012, pp. 113. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y36sapre.

Mark, Barbara. “From ‘Lunatic’ to ‘Client’: 300 Years of Psychiatric Patienthood.” Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, vol. 18, no. 3, Mar. 1980, pp. 32–36. Healio, doi:10.3928/0279-3695-19800301-06.

McCrae, Niall. “The Medieval Cosmos.” The Moon and Madness. Andrews UK Limited, 2011.

McGlynn, Margaret. “Idiots, Lunatics and the Royal Prerogative in Early Tudor England.” The Journal of Legal History, vol. 26, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1-24. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y5efd5r2.

McGowan, Joseph. “Elves, Elf-Shot, and Epilepsy: OE Ælfādl, Ælfsiden, Ælfsogeþa, Bræccoþu, and Bræcsēoc.” Studia Neophilologica, vol. 81, no. 2, 4 Jan. 2010, pp. 116–120. doi:10.1080/00393270903364028.

Moran, James E. “Suing for a Lunatic.” Madness on Trial: A Transatlantic History of English Civil Law and Lunacy. Manchester University Press, 2019. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526133045.00008.

Morris, Wright. “The Lunatic, the Lover, and the Poet.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 27, no. 4, 1965, pp. 727–37. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4334602.

Mula, Marco. “Epilepsy in Dante’s Poetry.” Epilepsy and Behavior, vol. 57, no. Pt B, 2016, pp. 251-254. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y4oeeswt.

Nasaw, Daniel. “How Offensive Is the Word ‘Lunatic’?” BBC News, 9 May 2012, www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17997413.

Neugebauer, R. “Diagnosis, Guardianship, and Residential Care of the Mentally Ill in Medieval and Early Modern England.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 146, no. 12, 1989, pp. 1580-1584. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/yya7wym8.

“Of Lunatics, Lovers, and Poets: The Conversation about Poetry in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream.” Ben Jonson Journal, vol. 25, no. 2, 2018, pp. 194-213. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y3kwk97m.

Oliven, John F. “Moonlight and Nervous Disorders.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 99, no. 4, Jan. 1943, pp. 579–84. doi:10.1176/ajp.99.4.579.

Ostade, Ingrid Tieken-Boon van, and John Frankis. Language Usage and Description: Studies Presented to N.E. Osselton on the Occasion of His Retirement. Rodopi, 1991.

Pérez, Jesús, et al. “Origins of Psychiatric Hospitalization in Medieval Spain.” Psychiatric Quarterly, vol. 83, no. 4, Dec. 2012, pp. 419–430. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s11126-012-9212-8.

Peloubet, Francis Nathan. Suggestive Illustrations on the Gospel According to Matthew: Illustrations from All Sources, Picturesque Greek Words, Library References to Further Illustrations, Photographs of Celebrated Pictures Referred To, for the Use of Leaders of Prayer-Meetings, Christian Endeavorers, Sunday-School Teachers, Pastors. E. R. Herrick, 1897.

Riva, Michele A., et al. “The Disease of the Moon: The Linguistic and Pathological Evolution of the English Term ‘Lunatic.’” Journal of the History of the Neurosciences, vol. 20, no. 1, 2011, pp. 65–73. doi:10.1080/0964704x.2010.481101.

Riva, Michele A., et al. “The Neurologist in Dante’s Inferno.” European Neurology, vol. 73, no. 5-6, 2015, pp. 278-282. Univ. of Pennsylvania, http://tinyurl.com/y5tatpb4.

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Contributor
Mckenzie Alons, Mary Knutson, Asela Madson, Cameron McNabb, Allison Stephan, all of Southeastern University

Submitted By
Cameron Hunt McNabb, Southeastern University